Introduction to Post-Roman Britain

In response to a request for military assistance in 410, Emperor Honorius told the British people they would have to defend themselves. The occupation of Britain by Roman forces had come to an end. The next 200 years are the least well-documented in the recorded history of Britain. Historians must turn to archaeological finds to glean an understanding of life in this time period; but unfortunately, without documentary evidence to provide names, dates, and the details of political events, the discoveries can only offer a general, and theoretical, picture. Still, by piecing together archaeological evidence, documents from the continent, monument inscriptions, and the few contemporary chronicles such as the works of Saint Patrick and Gildas, scholars have gained a general understanding of the time period as set forth here. The Map of Roman Britain in 410 shown here is available in a larger version. The People of Post-Roman Britain The inhabitants of Britain were at this time somewhat Romanized, especially in urban centers; but by blood and by tradition they were primarily Celtic. Under the Romans, local chieftains had played an active role in the government of the territory, and some of these leaders took up the reigns now that the Roman officials were gone. Nevertheless, cities began to deteriorate, and the population of the entire island may have declined, in spite of the fact that immigrants from the continent were settling along the east coast. Most of these new inhabitants were from Germanic tribes; the one most often mentioned is Saxon. Religion in Post-Roman Britain The Germanic newcomers worshipped pagan gods, but because Christianity had become the favored religion in the empire in the preceding century, most Britons were Christian. However, many British Christians followed the teachings of their fellow Briton Pelagius, whose views on original sin were condemned by the Church in 416, and whose brand of Christianity was therefore considered heretical. In 429, Saint Germanus of Auxerre visited Britain to preach the accepted version of Christianity to the followers of Pelagius. (This is one of the few events for which scholars have corroborating documentary evidence from records on the continent.) His arguments were well-received, and he is even believed to have helped fend off an attack by Saxons and Picts. Life in Post-Roman Britain The official withdrawal of Roman protection did not mean that Britain immediately succumbed to invaders. Somehow, the threat in 410 was kept at bay. Whether this was because some Roman soldiers stayed behind or the Britons themselves took up arms is undetermined. Nor did the British economy collapse. Although no new coinage was issued in Britain, coins stayed in circulation for at least a century (though they were ultimately debased); at the same time, barter became more common, and a mixture of the two characterized 5th-century trade. Tin mining appears to have continued through the post-Roman era, possibly with little or no interruption. Salt production also continued for some time, as did metal-working, leather-working, weaving, and the production of jewelry. Luxury goods were even imported from the continent -- an activity that actually increased in the late fifth century. The hill-forts that had originated centuries before showing archaeological evidence of occupancy in the fifth and sixth centuries, suggesting they were used to evade and hold off invading tribes. Post-Roman Britons are believed to have built timber halls, which would not have withstood the centuries as well as the stone structures of the Roman period, but which would have been habitable and even comfortable when they were first constructed. Villas remained inhabited, at least for a while, and were run by wealthier or more powerful individuals and their servants, be they slave or free. Tenant farmers also worked the land to survive. Life in Post-Roman Britain couldnt have been easy and carefree, but the Romano-British way of life survived, and the Britons flourished with it. Continued on page two: British Leadership. British Leadership If there had been any remnants of centralized government in the wake of the Roman withdrawal, it rapidly dissolved into rival factions. Then, in about 425, one leader achieved enough control to declare himself High King of Britain: Vortigern. Although Vortigern did not govern the entire territory, he did defend against invasion, particularly against attacks by Scots and Picts from the north. According to the sixth-century chronicler Gildas, Vortigern invited Saxon warriors to help him fight the northern invaders, in return for which he granted them land in what is today Sussex. Later sources would identify the leaders of these warriors as the brothers Hengist and Horsa. Hiring Barbarian mercenaries was a common Roman imperial practice, as was paying them with the land; but Vortigern was remembered bitterly for making a significant Saxon presence in England possible. The Saxons rebelled in the early 440s, eventually killing Vortigerns son and exacting more land from the British leader. Instability and Conflict Archaeological evidence indicates that fairly frequent military actions occurred across England over the rest of the fifth century. Gildas, who was born at the end of this period, reports that a series of battles took place between the native Britons and the Saxons, whom he calls a race hateful both to God and men. The successes of the invaders pushed some of the Britons west to the mountains, precipices, thickly wooded forests, and to the rocks of the seas (in present-day Wales and Cornwall); others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations (to present-day Brittany in western France). It is Gildas who named Ambrosius Aurelianus, a military commander of Roman extraction, as leading a resistance against the Germanic warriors and seeing some success. He does not provide a date, but he does give the reader some sense that at least a few years of strife against the Saxons had passed since the defeat of Vortigern before Aurelianus began his fight. Most historians place his activity from about 455 to the 480s. A Legendary Battle Both the Britons and the Saxons had their share of triumphs and tragedies until the British victory at the Battle of Mount Badon (Mons Badonicus), a.k.a. Badon Hill (sometimes translated as Bath-hill), which Gildas states took place in the year of his birth. Unfortunately, there is no record of the writers birth date, so estimates of this battle have ranged from as early as the 480s to as late as 516 (as recorded centuries later in the Annales Cambriae). Most scholars agree it occurred close to the year 500. There is also no scholarly consensus for where the battle took place since there was no Badon Hill in Britain in the following centuries. And, while many theories have been put forward as to the identity of the commanders, there is no information in contemporary or even near-contemporary sources to corroborate these theories. Some scholars have speculated that Ambrosius Aurelianus led the Britons, and this is indeed possible; but if it were true, it would require a reconfiguration of the dates of his activity, or an acceptance of an exceptionally long military career. And Gildas, whose work is the sole written source for Aurelianus as commander of the Britons, does not name him explicitly, or even refer to him vaguely, as the victor at Mount Badon. A Short Peace The Battle of Mount Badon is important because it marked the end of the conflict of the late fifth century, and ushered in an era of relative peace. It is during this time -- the mid-6th century -- that Gildas wrote the work that gives scholars most of the details they have about the late fifth century: the De Excidio Britanniae (On the Ruin of Britain). In the De Excidio Britanniae, Gildas told of the past troubles of the Britons and acknowledged the current peace they enjoyed. He also took his fellow Britons to task for cowardice, foolishness, corruption, and civil unrest. There is no hint in his writings of the fresh Saxon invasions that awaited Britain in the last half of the sixth century, other than, perhaps, a general sense of doom brought on by his bewailing of the latest generation of know-nothings and do-nothings. Continued on page three: The Age of Arthur? In response to a request for military assistance in 410, Emperor Honorius told the British people they would have to defend themselves. The occupation of Britain by Roman forces had come to an end. The next 200 years are the least well-documented in the recorded history of Britain. Historians must turn to archaeological finds to glean an understanding of life in this time period; but unfortunately, without documentary evidence to provide names, dates, and the details of political events, the discoveries can only offer a general, and theoretical, picture. Still, by piecing together archaeological evidence, documents from the continent, monument inscriptions, and the few contemporary chronicles such as the works of Saint Patrick and Gildas, scholars have gained a general understanding of the time period as set forth here. The Map of Roman Britain in 410 shown here is available in a larger version. The People of Post-Roman Britain The inhabitants of Britain were at this time somewhat Romanized, especially in urban centers; but by blood and by tradition they were primarily Celtic. Under the Romans, local chieftains had played an active role in the government of the territory, and some of these leaders took up the reigns now that the Roman officials were gone. Nevertheless, cities began to deteriorate, and the population of the entire island may have declined, in spite of the fact that immigrants from the continent were settling along the east coast. Most of these new inhabitants were from Germanic tribes; the one most often mentioned is Saxon. Religion in Post-Roman Britain The Germanic newcomers worshipped pagan gods, but because Christianity had become the favored religion in the empire in the preceding century, most Britons were Christian. However, many British Christians followed the teachings of their fellow Briton Pelagius, whose views on original sin were condemned by the Church in 416, and whose brand of Christianity was therefore considered heretical. In 429, Saint Germanus of Auxerre visited Britain to preach the accepted version of Christianity to the followers of Pelagius. (This is one of the few events for which scholars have corroborating documentary evidence from records on the continent.) His arguments were well-received, and he is even believed to have helped fend off an attack by Saxons and Picts. Life in Post-Roman Britain The official withdrawal of Roman protection did not mean that Britain immediately succumbed to invaders. Somehow, the threat in 410 was kept at bay. Whether this was because some Roman soldiers stayed behind or the Britons themselves took up arms is undetermined. Nor did the British economy collapse. Although no new coinage was issued in Britain, coins stayed in circulation for at least a century (though they were ultimately debased); at the same time, barter became more common, and a mixture of the two characterized 5th-century trade. Tin mining appears to have continued through the post-Roman era, possibly with little or no interruption. Salt production also continued for some time, as did metal-working, leather-working, weaving, and the production of jewelry. Luxury goods were even imported from the continent -- an activity that actually increased in the late fifth century. The hill-forts that had originated centuries before showing archaeological evidence of occupancy in the fifth and sixth centuries, suggesting they were used to evade and hold off invading tribes. Post-Roman Britons are believed to have built timber halls, which would not have withstood the centuries as well as the stone structures of the Roman period, but which would have been habitable and even comfortable when they were first constructed. Villas remained inhabited, at least for a while, and were run by wealthier or more powerful individuals and their servants, be they slave or free. Tenant farmers also worked the land to survive. Life in Post-Roman Britain couldnt have been easy and carefree, but the Romano-British way of life survived, and the Britons flourished with it. Continued on page two: British Leadership.

Convenience Food Fast Food And Junk Food Essay - 2071 Words

Convenience Food Research Essay Rough Draft Convenience food includes fast food and junk food. This food is very convenient for people s lives, but it is not really convenient for people s health. Why people should avoid these convenience foods? According to the article Convenience Foods the author names Rodriguez, Judith mentioned that [c]onvenience food is generic and can apply to just about any food, but it is generally used in reference to canned items, instant foods or mixes, frozen foods or meals, and fast foods. Actually, convenience food, or processed food, is commercially prepared food as an easy way to get and consume. Most convenience food provides little nutritional value, and it has excessive amounts of sodium, sugar, and saturated fats. Thus, people should avoid these types of foods, and it is highly recommended for individuals with health conditions, such as heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Convenience food affects children lives the most. It places them at high risk of the development chronic diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes later in their life. Even though, children have less weight related health and medical problems than adults, they are also more prone to develop stress, sadness, and low self-esteem. Moreover, overweight children are at high risk of becoming overweight adolescents and adults. Besides, convenience food is one of reason that make people become lazy. Therefore, people should not use these types of foods, becauseShow MoreRelatedAmerica s Current Economic State People Look For One Thing1311 Words   |  6 PagesIn America’s current economic state people look for one thing: convenience. The American lifestyle has evolved into a fast paced, overwhelming lifestyle with Americans looking to fulfill their needs through affordable and easily accessible means. There has been an increased popularity in fast food and convenience store establishments that provide quick and energizing products. It is the cheap and convenient way to purchase these foods that is slowly hindering the health of our country. The reasonRead MoreNegative Effects of Today’s Food on Elementary-Aged Children Essay1463 Words   |  6 Pages In today’s culture, food is often judged by its convenience and taste. Processed and fast foods are quick and easy, and taste fairly good. Children especially enjoy fast food and packaged snacks. But while this may seem a good solution to the fast-paced society we live in, it is actually a dangerous habit. 15% of children ages 6-19 are overweight, and the number is growing (Back to School). Even if a child is not obese, he often does not eat healthy and faces the danger of becoming overweightRead MoreNegative Effects of Today’s Food on Elementary-Aged Children Essay1500 Words   |  6 PagesIn today’s culture, people judge food by its convenience and taste. Processed and fast foods are quick, easy, and taste fairly good. Children, especially, enjoy fast food and packaged snacks. While this may seem a good solution to this fast-paced society, it is actually a dangerous habit. Fifteen percent of children ages six to nineteen are overweight, and the number is growing (Back to School). Even if a child is not obese, he often does not eat healthy and faces the danger of becoming overweightRead MoreEssay on The Long Term Effects of Fast Food556 Words   |  3 Pagesreasons why more than 11 million Canadians are overweight, but undoubtedly a key factor is fast food. Canadians should stop eating fast food, because if they do their health will improve, their will save money, and reduce their carbon footprint. It is quite will known that that fast food is junk food, and daily consumption of junk food will have detrimental affects on one’s health. Junk foods are essentially foods with little or no nutritional value. Add high amounts of sodium, and excess cholesterolRead MoreJunk Food Is Not Good For Your Health792 Words   |  4 Pages Nowadays, fast food has become convenient and popular for everyone to take, in which people can eat fast food as each meal such as lunch and dinner. According to Merriam-Webster, junk food is â€Å"food that is not good for your health because it contains high amounts of fat or sugar†. Saying junk food from the Portuguese. About 500 years ago, there is a Portuguese word junk, which means old pieces of rope (old cable). Over time, the meaning of the wordRead MoreUnhealthy Fast Food Essay906 Words   |  4 Pages The population of America is becoming more aware of the importance of good nutrition. Ironically the people are becoming increasingly less healthy. In the 1960s the nation ate healthier but knew less about nutrition. The foods that the teenagers consume today contributes to the increasing weight and decreasing health of the nation. Many outside factors determine the eating habits of teenagers today. When the baby boomer generation grew up a majority of the homes had mothers who workedRead MoreEssay On Junk Food In Schools1222 Words   |  5 Pageslunches refrain from serving fresh foods (â€Å"The Real Problem with Lunch†). School lunches are no longer prepared from scratch easily now entrusted to highly processed foods. Clearly, one-third of American children’s diet consists of fast food (â€Å"The Real Problem with Lunch†). Junk foods in schools have become a profound issue in many states of the US. Laws have been formulated to forbid unwholesome meals by expelling or reducing the accessibility of related foods held by the institutes. Here are severalRead MoreIs Junk Food Really Cheaper?944 Words   |  4 PagesIn an article published in the New York Times, journalist Mark Bittman explores the common misconception that junk food is more cost efficient than buying and preparing your own food. In the article â€Å"Is Junk Food Really Cheaper?† Bit tman attempts to unravel common arguments revolving around the affordability and convenience of fast food and proposes some alternatives to what he deems as a contributing factor to obesity in America. Though Bittman makes an understandable argument in the article theRead MoreEating Environments Contribute to Obesity1692 Words   |  7 PagesFood and eating environments contribute to the increase in cases of not only obesity also chronic diseases.Its a basic necessity of a child in their growing age to have a nutritious and healthy deit because of its delicious taste. However as it has been witness eating habits have shifted alaramingly over the last couple of decades. Fast foods such as burgers, pizzas,subways and many more are now commonly consumed foods in almost every household all over Pakistan now. Such foods originated in theRead MoreThe Secrets Behind Modern Food1534 Words   |  7 PagesModern Food As we all know, food is necessary for survival. The food many of us eat today is so unhealthy that our grandparents laugh in the face of our plastic-wrapped, and genetically modified fruit and vegetables. Food is changing every day from the healthy food our grandparents remember to the processed junk that is made in environment-killing factories. Whether in a restaurant or convenient store, healthy foods are no longer popular, people would rather eat the greasy processed food that happens

Subnet Level Network Topology Mapping †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Subnet Level Network Topology Mapping. Answer: Introduction: In network communication, the protocol is defined as the rules by which two devices communicate over the given communication channel. All rules governing like syntax, communication initiation /Termination and packet size are all govern by the protocol itself. In case of any error the protocol must take care of the error and avoid the termination of the conversation. A network analyzer analyzes the packets captured on the communication channel during the communication between the network devices. Network analyze could be a software or hardware or even combination of both. These types of devices help in analyzing the traffic over the network and helps in troubleshooting any situation that relates to the network communication. The network analyzer is not a tool that can replace the firewall or anti-virus but these tools can enhance the functionality of these tools providing the better security and avoiding the risk of any attacks. A network hub is the device that is designed to connect the various devices to each other without understanding the data being communicated. When a hub receives the packet, it is transferred to all the connected devices to the hub. Switches on the other side are much more intelligent than hubs, the switches process and examine all the data communicated on the network and transferred it to the matching destination whose address matches the residing nodes. If the matching one is not found the packet is simply dropped from the network. The current system is slow due to the fact it has connected the devices using the Hub, as the hub being the dumb device and its transmits all the data to all the nodes, it leads to the situation of collisions and congestions. This leads to delay in the overall network hence leading to the number of retransmission of data packets that would lead to slower network as same work is done using more packets and more time is consumed in communications. If we use the network analyzer we would then receive in the output log lot of ICMP and LLC packets, this shows the ping request and data packets being transmitted all over the place and network receiving all the data which is meant for the single machine. (Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, Perrig, n.d.) The solution to the situation is to use the network switch for the communication that would greatly bring down the number of ICMP and LLC packets on the network. This would also mean lesser congestion on the network and lower the traffic and systems would start with better speeds and would take less time booting up. In computer networks the path from one destination to other require the machines to follow certain algorithms for making the decisions. There are two major routing protocols for this: These are two major classes of routing protocol in which Distance vector uses Bellman ford, Ford-Fulkerson Algorithms to calculate the optimal paths. This routing protocol is quite simple protocol, it allows the routers to automate the process of packet delivery using the shortest path in order to reach the destination. The shortest path metric is cost that is associated with link. (Munaretto, Badis, Al Agha, Pujolle, n.d.) The protocol tracks the status of the connection with all the nodes and keep the track of speeds offered by the link. The status also includes if the link is up or not and how much time is needed for the packet to reach the required destination. Routers are needed to keep checking the paths and links in order to have updated routing information. This is why the link state is more complex hardware and have more overhead as compared to the Distance Vector. (Tao, Gao, Wang, Zhang, Ma, 2016) As in the figure 1 using the Distance Vector Routing the path that would be taken is A-B, whereas the Link state would take A-C-D-B that is 10 times faster than the Distance vector. If all the channels have same speed the Distance vector is preferred and if Link state is preferred in situation where speeds of links are different. (Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, Perrig, n.d.) Subnetting is the process in which the network is divided into smaller networks in order to manage the congestion and collisions in the network. The division is done over the layer 3 of the OSI model of IP address. Current subnet is to have at least 6 networks with 1024 nodes each using the IP address 10.0.0.0. Current requirements are as follows: (Manaf, Bataona, 2014) (Tozal, Sarac, 2011) Building A - 200 workstations Building B - 125 workstations Building C - 135 workstations Building D - 122 workstations Building E - 312 workstations Building F - 105 workstations With the given input the network would be subnetted using the subnet mask of 255.224.0.0 or /11 that would provide 2097152 number of IP address each subnet. The List of networks is: The technology in network is more concerned in order to get the throughput and pumping of the data to the nodes regardless of how the data is being communicated in the network. In such situations, many packets might be even stored in buffered or dropped if the situation arise of overflow situation. The applications such as RTMP the situation is not at all idea hence the in order to have the optimal data transfer with constant bandwidth the protocol needs to have the feature known as Quality of Service known as QoS. Bandwidth Reservation:The Bandwidth is reserved for the certain period of time and it is generally being followed in multimedia based applications, also known as resource reservation. (Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao, 2008) Latency Management:Limit the delay between the two nodes. Traffic Prioritization:priority to the packet of certain type or protocol. Traffic Shaping:buffer and limits the packets to a predefined limit of the network Network Congestion Avoidance: monitor packets and routing information so that to use the lesser congestion. TOS (type of service) a field used in the IPv4 based header for many purposes on the network such as priority queue management, lower the delay using the routes having the high throughput and much reliable services. (Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao, 2008) References Manaf, A., Bataona, D. (2014). Analysis and design of subnetting methods: Hybrid fixed length subnet masking (HFLSM).2014 International Conference On Electrical Engineering And Computer Science (ICEECS). https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iceecs.2014.7045228 Munaretto, A., Badis, H., Al Agha, K., Pujolle, G. A link-state QoS routing protocol for ad hoc networks.4Th International Workshop On Mobile And Wireless Communications Network. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mwcn.2002.1045726 Tao, J., Gao, X., Wang, B., Zhang, X., Ma, S. (2016). Multi-path based link-state routing mechanism.2016 18Th International Conference On Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT). https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icact.2016.7423385 Tozal, M., Sarac, K. (2011). Subnet level network topology mapping.30Th IEEE International Performance Computing And Communications Conference. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/pccc.2011.6108072 Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, D., Perrig, A. SEAD: secure efficient distance vector routing for mobile wireless ad hoc networks.Proceedings Fourth IEEE Workshop On Mobile Computing Systems And Applications. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mcsa.2002.1017480 Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao. (2008). SIP peering based on distance vector algorithm.2008 11Th IEEE International Conference On Communication Technology. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icct.2008.4716130

LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT Essay Example

LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT Paper Making a judgment on effectiveness of international environmental protection General / law reform introductory statements: The growing interdependence of nation-states has led to greater international attempts to reduce impact of human interference with the environment on a global scale. Although much Federal and State legislation exist in Australia aimed at regulating domestic use of the environment, to date, the international community has largely been ineffective in regulating use of the environment. Ongoing law reform is required in order to meet global targets and ensure intra and inter generational equity, reform which to date has largely been ineffective particularly in response to increasing climate change and global warning concerns. Legal processes and legal institutions introductory statements: The effectiveness of domestic and international law in protecting the global environment is limited. Legal processes, such as international conventions and actions of Nags placing p ressure on domestic governments, and legal institutions such as the United Nations and International Court of Justice can act to protect the environment effectively. However, due to the notion of state-sovereignty there is a lack of legal enforcement that compromises protection of the environment for current and future generations. The concepts of intra-generational and inter-generation equity stipulate that both rent and future generations have a right to a clean environment. More frequent international conferences have attempted to achieve such sustainable developments, however little progress has been achieved. Increasing domestic laws have been enacted to better protect the fragility of our global environment. Due to sustained periods of economic growth and high polluting and energy- inefficient methods, our environment has been proven to be under immediate threat. We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer International law attempts ensure equity amongst nation states and ensure the protection of the global environment, however its effectiveness is limited by the interdependence and reliance on goodwill of nation states. Global problems (including global warming) and role of International Law also note problems – good faith, sovereignty, lack of enforceability. The broad concept of environment encompasses all aspects of natural and built environment. Law reform as both a domestic and international level is increasingly taking place in attempt to reduce the human impact on our fragile environment. Current environmental problems include global warming, loss of species, deforestation, air and water pollution. The basis of the international environmental law is focused on the concept of intergenerational equity – a concept which refers to notions of the worlds â€Å"common future?’ recognizing the obligation of each nation to maintain and preserve the environment so that it can be protected for current and future generations. It is the role of the law to regulate management of environmental resources by protecting and preventing excess or unnecessary exploitation by instating restrictive legislation, whilst balancing the consumptive needs of society. Despite increasing international awareness, the law remain largely ineffective tit little agreement between nations and heightened inequity between developing and developed nations. Developing countries such as China and India have had a minimal impact in causing global warming, compared to major consumers such as the LISA. However, as they are now experiencing rapid growth economically, they are being pressured to minimize grow th in the bid to alter the effects of climate change. As international law must be ratified into domestic principles and is largely reliant on the goodwill of sovereign states, protecting and regulating the environment is largely ineffective. Despite increasing pressure on the international community to prevent further environmental degradation, the nation of state sovereignty and the individual economic and political interests of nation states will continue to represent a barrier to widespread protection. Not all nations are bound to accept and ratify intentional agreements. As a result, enforceability of international environmental laws is difficult and hard to maintain. Other environmental problems which you may consider: deforestation, salivation of agricultural lands making them barren and unsuitable for crops, loss/endangered species, Stockholm and ROI Conferences Increasing awareness and discussion about environmental issues led to a series of key international conferences. The first major international conference in relation to the global environment was the 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment. The aim was to establish a set of common guidelines for managing issues: pollution, deforestation and loss of threatened species. The Stockholm Declaration, of which 113 UN member states signed recognized state-sovereignty yet recognized the importance of joint cooperation and leadership in environmental protection. Although this legal process / law reform signified a major development of awareness, it had little effect as agreements reached were ‘soft law, which had no binding power on nation-states unless formally ratified, a process outside the control of the United Nations (ON). The most sign efficient achievement was the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programmer (UNEVEN). This establishment escalated attention paid to environment matters and encouraged domestic governments to enact specific environmental laws and legal processes to deal with environmental degradation. Significantly Uneven MIS recognized the inequity between nation states, and determined that developing countries should assist in ‘closing the gap’ between them and developing countries without compromising their standard of living. The first collective recognition of global environmental protection and signaled the importance of joint UN led legal invention. The ROI Conference (Earth Summit) was held in 1992, and covered growing issues absent in Stockholm. It attempted to create an Earth Charter, however this was unsuccessful due to a lack of consensus and funding between nation states. As a result of concussions in ROI, in which 125 nation were present, many nation States took further steps to enact domestic law aimed at protecting the environment. For example, the ‘precautionary principle’ discussed and agreed upon during the international meeting was ratified into Australian domestic law in the form of the provisions contained in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Act). To enforce environment protection laws, the legal institution – the Department of Environment and Conservation, previously known as the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) holds rower to investigate and prosecute offenders found in breach of domestic laws. The establishment of UNFROCK led to the increasingly greater awareness that nation states around the world must begin thinking about the impacts of climate change and implement policies and laws to reduce greenhouse gases and pollution of our environment. It discussed the issues of â€℠¢emissions trading’ and ‘carbon trading’. This was further discussed at the Kyoto Convention leading to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. Overall evaluation of the conferences: These conferences have largely proved significant in increasing awareness ND developing knowledge about environmental issues, however still present only the beginning Of legislative action. Kyoto and Copenhagen The long awaited drafting of the Kyoto Protocol in 2005 following the Kyoto Conference on Climate Change in 1997 has seen many nations act to lower emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in order to reduce the effects of global warming. The Protocol, which came into effect in February 2005 following signatures by many nations including UK, Canada and Russia developed the concept of carbon reduction targets. However the ineffectiveness of international law can be shown in the delays in many countries signing. This protocol did not receive acceptance everywhere as some of the heaviest polluters such as the US, China and India, and until Rude government election in late 2007, Australia has refused to sign. Much of the proposed law reform surrounding climate change requires participation in a complex system of emissions trading. However, proposed emission schemes remain complex and pose difficulties in terms of compliance, economic costs of supporting businesses in transition periods and ongoing lays in some nation states being willing to participate. It has been said for Australia to sufficiently protect the global environment they must pass a national emissions trading scheme, increase the renewable energy targets, re-assess transport systems and build sustainable cities. However, enforceability is difficult due to the reality of economic costs and job losses. Although under UNFED aims, climate change is regarded as a global problem, issues exist for developing countries like China and India who will suffer economic disadvantage and find it difficult to meet targets whilst maintaining a animal level of economic growth. As this protocol runs out in 2012, The Copenhagen Conference on Climate Change 2009 will aim to create a new climate protocol to replace it, however lack of agreement between countries remains an barrier to cohesive international law reform. State sovereignty exists to limit the role and power of the UN to demand comprehensive agreement. ICC and Tribunals Upon the establishment of the environmental chamber of the International Court of Justice in 1 993, legal processes were developed that allow for conflict resolution between nation-states. The ICC aims to settle disputes teens nations and uphold the notion of inter-dependence – the belief that all countries have a duty to protect Other States. For example, in the case Of united States v. Canada (1941), action was taken in response to issues of turnarounds pollution where the US claimed that toxic sulfur dioxide was traveling from Canada causing damage, pollution, health risks. The legal institution established to hear the matter found in favor of the US where is was stated that ‘a state has a duty to protect other states against injurious acts by individuals within its own jurisdiction’. However, despite having jurisdiction to resolve disputes between nation states, the ICC remains largely ineffective. Cases heard remain complex and difficult to resolve, particularly when consent of both parties is required prior and during proceedings. Only nation states can be party to proceedings meaning that individuals and/or transnational companies escape international prosecution. Participation in proceedings remains voluntary and if agreed to may damage already touchy relationships between nation states as was the results of legal action between Australia and France in relation to Pacific nuclear testing in early sass. Orders made rely upon the goodwill of nations in terms of enforcement and regulation. An example of the ineffectiveness of this legal institution in resolving global disputes can be seen in recent claims made by the Australian government against Japan in an attempt to stop illegal whaling and loss of marine species. With no recognition and/or cooperation from Japan, the Australian government is yet to access the services of the ICC and to date no action has been taken. It is suggested that law reform be introduced to ensure that ICC decisions are inning and parties be compelled to attend a hearing to ensure global collective rights too clean environment. Much criticism against the ICC has come from Greenback and other Nags who feel disadvantaged in relation to issues of the environment and request rights to refer matters to ICC for legal sanctions. There are various other international tribunals that may here environmental cases, such the International Law Commission, and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. These aim to develop, draft, and codify unwritten international law No’s and Media Non-governmental organizations and the media play an integral role in the generating awareness and applying pressure on governments to reform the law in response to issues such as climate change. No’s include voluntary groups of individuals with common interests, or regional organizations covering masses of land, made up of nations com ing together in agreement or discussion. Nags have a difficult task in particularly in legal development as international law does not recognize the sights of Nags to participate in treaties and they have no jurisdiction to appear formally before international tribunals. They do however play an importance role by applying political pressure on authoritative bodies to take action, informing the global public about infringements of rights and environmental concerns and providing opportunity for involvement. Greenback and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WFM) are the most significant environmental No’s. Greenback concentrates on lobbying governments for action, generating global awareness, and active protest against environmental injustices such as whaling, disposal of toxic waste, and nuclear testing. Nags can prompt significant law reform as has been the exult of protest action by Greenback which led to international treaties limiting whaling, fishing and loss of marine life. MONGO action has also seen the naming and protection of World Heritage Sites (e. G. Great Barrier Reef). The action of No’s proved the turning point in the establishment of the 1 989 the Wellington Convention for the Prohibition on fishing with long Drift Nets in the South Pacific was adopted, creating a large driftnet-free zone in the Pacific Ocean. The media also plays a key role in management of the environment. Environmental groups use media to raise awareness about environmental once and the media reports on matters that otherwise would go biblically unnoticed without coverage. For example, when new littering laws were introduced in New South Wales, the media endorsed the campaign: â€Å"Litter: its in your hands†. The SMS article ‘Toxic Metals Threat’ June 2009 is just one instance of environmental concern addressed in the media which deprecates use of delta electricity due to high rates of dangerous chemical pollution. Due to the continued industrialization and development of the human world, there has been major repercussions for the environment. CA emissions rose n 1990-2000 by 25% and the hole in the ozone layer is becoming a â€Å"catastrophic disaster’ (SMS 6/9/07). Some have said that the issues of climate change and carbon emissions are being ignored because â€Å"we are all too bored to do anything about it† (SMS March 2009). The role of the media in raising awareness is a major one. Advertisement campaigns and articles highlight facts and realities that society is all too willing to ignore. Initiatives such as Earth Hour and Clean-up Australia Day are national and global campaigns that show the effectiveness of non-legal mechanisms in raising wariness about the global environment. Australia Although there is no direct reference to the environment under the Constitution, the Federal Parliament has the ability under the ‘external affairs’ power to legislative protecting the environment. The election of a new Labor government under Rude has seen renewed attention and funding given to environmental problems, particularly climate change. There are 150 separate Federal and State laws dealing with the identification and prevention of problems. The Australian Federal Parliament has regularly responded to ratify and selective much international agreements into our domestic law. The Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conversation Act 1 999 (Act) acts as the central piece of environmental legislation providing a framework to protect and manage flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places which are regarded as matters of national significance. It also incorporates international principles including the precautionary principle and intergenerational equity into our domestic legal systems. Much domestic environmental legislation operates at a State level. The Clean Air Act 1961 and Clean Water Act 1 970 which have addressed lose matters of resource protection. The Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NEWS) is a more recent and specific document that governs the strategic planning and development processes undertaken by government in NEWS which is therefore more effective. The issue of climate change has been addressed in Australia, particularly by the Department Of Environment and Climate Change (DECK) which aims to respond to issues and reform sustainable management of land and water resources and implement further targets to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme. However delays in achieving political agreement on the terms and practical operation of a national carbon emissions scheme is shown through ongoing delays in securing bipartisan support (this is support of both Labor and Liberal governments) for the new Bill. Discussion has now been postponed until early 201 0 until after Copenhagen Conference where it is expected that Australia will participate, however no definite promises have been made to date. SMS article – ‘Carbon bill burns as Rude fiddles’ May 2009. Section 123 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1 979 NEWS enables ‘anyone with an interest to gain ‘locus stands’ over environmental matters. This was highlighted by the case Schlock v. Iron Gate Ltd and Richmond River Shire Council (1997) where No’s commenced successful legal proceedings against a man whom acted on breach of illegal clear-felling of trees and illegal destruction of bushman habitat. This case furthermore illustrates an effective response by the legal system to provide accessibility to individuals to enable them to participate in having environmental laws enforced thus protecting the environment for current and future generations. As well as the UN-cooperation of specific internal laws, Australia has domestic legislation under the Land and Environment Court, an institution established under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1 979 (NEWS). It states that â€Å"any person can bring proceedings†. This highlights the fact that legal processes are established and readily available in Australia, however economic costs are high. The Court has set strong precedents to deter environmental damage. The case of EPA v Gardner (1997) saw the first environmental offender punished with a custodial sentence after Gardner as found guilty of pumping sewage into a natural lake to avoid fees. The cases of EPA v Alex (2005) and EPA v Weight (2001 ) reveal further action by the Court to prosecute offenders by issuing heavy fines – page 66 Resource Book for more details.