Introduction to Post-Roman Britain

In response to a request for military assistance in 410, Emperor Honorius told the British people they would have to defend themselves. The occupation of Britain by Roman forces had come to an end. The next 200 years are the least well-documented in the recorded history of Britain. Historians must turn to archaeological finds to glean an understanding of life in this time period; but unfortunately, without documentary evidence to provide names, dates, and the details of political events, the discoveries can only offer a general, and theoretical, picture. Still, by piecing together archaeological evidence, documents from the continent, monument inscriptions, and the few contemporary chronicles such as the works of Saint Patrick and Gildas, scholars have gained a general understanding of the time period as set forth here. The Map of Roman Britain in 410 shown here is available in a larger version. The People of Post-Roman Britain The inhabitants of Britain were at this time somewhat Romanized, especially in urban centers; but by blood and by tradition they were primarily Celtic. Under the Romans, local chieftains had played an active role in the government of the territory, and some of these leaders took up the reigns now that the Roman officials were gone. Nevertheless, cities began to deteriorate, and the population of the entire island may have declined, in spite of the fact that immigrants from the continent were settling along the east coast. Most of these new inhabitants were from Germanic tribes; the one most often mentioned is Saxon. Religion in Post-Roman Britain The Germanic newcomers worshipped pagan gods, but because Christianity had become the favored religion in the empire in the preceding century, most Britons were Christian. However, many British Christians followed the teachings of their fellow Briton Pelagius, whose views on original sin were condemned by the Church in 416, and whose brand of Christianity was therefore considered heretical. In 429, Saint Germanus of Auxerre visited Britain to preach the accepted version of Christianity to the followers of Pelagius. (This is one of the few events for which scholars have corroborating documentary evidence from records on the continent.) His arguments were well-received, and he is even believed to have helped fend off an attack by Saxons and Picts. Life in Post-Roman Britain The official withdrawal of Roman protection did not mean that Britain immediately succumbed to invaders. Somehow, the threat in 410 was kept at bay. Whether this was because some Roman soldiers stayed behind or the Britons themselves took up arms is undetermined. Nor did the British economy collapse. Although no new coinage was issued in Britain, coins stayed in circulation for at least a century (though they were ultimately debased); at the same time, barter became more common, and a mixture of the two characterized 5th-century trade. Tin mining appears to have continued through the post-Roman era, possibly with little or no interruption. Salt production also continued for some time, as did metal-working, leather-working, weaving, and the production of jewelry. Luxury goods were even imported from the continent -- an activity that actually increased in the late fifth century. The hill-forts that had originated centuries before showing archaeological evidence of occupancy in the fifth and sixth centuries, suggesting they were used to evade and hold off invading tribes. Post-Roman Britons are believed to have built timber halls, which would not have withstood the centuries as well as the stone structures of the Roman period, but which would have been habitable and even comfortable when they were first constructed. Villas remained inhabited, at least for a while, and were run by wealthier or more powerful individuals and their servants, be they slave or free. Tenant farmers also worked the land to survive. Life in Post-Roman Britain couldnt have been easy and carefree, but the Romano-British way of life survived, and the Britons flourished with it. Continued on page two: British Leadership. British Leadership If there had been any remnants of centralized government in the wake of the Roman withdrawal, it rapidly dissolved into rival factions. Then, in about 425, one leader achieved enough control to declare himself High King of Britain: Vortigern. Although Vortigern did not govern the entire territory, he did defend against invasion, particularly against attacks by Scots and Picts from the north. According to the sixth-century chronicler Gildas, Vortigern invited Saxon warriors to help him fight the northern invaders, in return for which he granted them land in what is today Sussex. Later sources would identify the leaders of these warriors as the brothers Hengist and Horsa. Hiring Barbarian mercenaries was a common Roman imperial practice, as was paying them with the land; but Vortigern was remembered bitterly for making a significant Saxon presence in England possible. The Saxons rebelled in the early 440s, eventually killing Vortigerns son and exacting more land from the British leader. Instability and Conflict Archaeological evidence indicates that fairly frequent military actions occurred across England over the rest of the fifth century. Gildas, who was born at the end of this period, reports that a series of battles took place between the native Britons and the Saxons, whom he calls a race hateful both to God and men. The successes of the invaders pushed some of the Britons west to the mountains, precipices, thickly wooded forests, and to the rocks of the seas (in present-day Wales and Cornwall); others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations (to present-day Brittany in western France). It is Gildas who named Ambrosius Aurelianus, a military commander of Roman extraction, as leading a resistance against the Germanic warriors and seeing some success. He does not provide a date, but he does give the reader some sense that at least a few years of strife against the Saxons had passed since the defeat of Vortigern before Aurelianus began his fight. Most historians place his activity from about 455 to the 480s. A Legendary Battle Both the Britons and the Saxons had their share of triumphs and tragedies until the British victory at the Battle of Mount Badon (Mons Badonicus), a.k.a. Badon Hill (sometimes translated as Bath-hill), which Gildas states took place in the year of his birth. Unfortunately, there is no record of the writers birth date, so estimates of this battle have ranged from as early as the 480s to as late as 516 (as recorded centuries later in the Annales Cambriae). Most scholars agree it occurred close to the year 500. There is also no scholarly consensus for where the battle took place since there was no Badon Hill in Britain in the following centuries. And, while many theories have been put forward as to the identity of the commanders, there is no information in contemporary or even near-contemporary sources to corroborate these theories. Some scholars have speculated that Ambrosius Aurelianus led the Britons, and this is indeed possible; but if it were true, it would require a reconfiguration of the dates of his activity, or an acceptance of an exceptionally long military career. And Gildas, whose work is the sole written source for Aurelianus as commander of the Britons, does not name him explicitly, or even refer to him vaguely, as the victor at Mount Badon. A Short Peace The Battle of Mount Badon is important because it marked the end of the conflict of the late fifth century, and ushered in an era of relative peace. It is during this time -- the mid-6th century -- that Gildas wrote the work that gives scholars most of the details they have about the late fifth century: the De Excidio Britanniae (On the Ruin of Britain). In the De Excidio Britanniae, Gildas told of the past troubles of the Britons and acknowledged the current peace they enjoyed. He also took his fellow Britons to task for cowardice, foolishness, corruption, and civil unrest. There is no hint in his writings of the fresh Saxon invasions that awaited Britain in the last half of the sixth century, other than, perhaps, a general sense of doom brought on by his bewailing of the latest generation of know-nothings and do-nothings. Continued on page three: The Age of Arthur? In response to a request for military assistance in 410, Emperor Honorius told the British people they would have to defend themselves. The occupation of Britain by Roman forces had come to an end. The next 200 years are the least well-documented in the recorded history of Britain. Historians must turn to archaeological finds to glean an understanding of life in this time period; but unfortunately, without documentary evidence to provide names, dates, and the details of political events, the discoveries can only offer a general, and theoretical, picture. Still, by piecing together archaeological evidence, documents from the continent, monument inscriptions, and the few contemporary chronicles such as the works of Saint Patrick and Gildas, scholars have gained a general understanding of the time period as set forth here. The Map of Roman Britain in 410 shown here is available in a larger version. The People of Post-Roman Britain The inhabitants of Britain were at this time somewhat Romanized, especially in urban centers; but by blood and by tradition they were primarily Celtic. Under the Romans, local chieftains had played an active role in the government of the territory, and some of these leaders took up the reigns now that the Roman officials were gone. Nevertheless, cities began to deteriorate, and the population of the entire island may have declined, in spite of the fact that immigrants from the continent were settling along the east coast. Most of these new inhabitants were from Germanic tribes; the one most often mentioned is Saxon. Religion in Post-Roman Britain The Germanic newcomers worshipped pagan gods, but because Christianity had become the favored religion in the empire in the preceding century, most Britons were Christian. However, many British Christians followed the teachings of their fellow Briton Pelagius, whose views on original sin were condemned by the Church in 416, and whose brand of Christianity was therefore considered heretical. In 429, Saint Germanus of Auxerre visited Britain to preach the accepted version of Christianity to the followers of Pelagius. (This is one of the few events for which scholars have corroborating documentary evidence from records on the continent.) His arguments were well-received, and he is even believed to have helped fend off an attack by Saxons and Picts. Life in Post-Roman Britain The official withdrawal of Roman protection did not mean that Britain immediately succumbed to invaders. Somehow, the threat in 410 was kept at bay. Whether this was because some Roman soldiers stayed behind or the Britons themselves took up arms is undetermined. Nor did the British economy collapse. Although no new coinage was issued in Britain, coins stayed in circulation for at least a century (though they were ultimately debased); at the same time, barter became more common, and a mixture of the two characterized 5th-century trade. Tin mining appears to have continued through the post-Roman era, possibly with little or no interruption. Salt production also continued for some time, as did metal-working, leather-working, weaving, and the production of jewelry. Luxury goods were even imported from the continent -- an activity that actually increased in the late fifth century. The hill-forts that had originated centuries before showing archaeological evidence of occupancy in the fifth and sixth centuries, suggesting they were used to evade and hold off invading tribes. Post-Roman Britons are believed to have built timber halls, which would not have withstood the centuries as well as the stone structures of the Roman period, but which would have been habitable and even comfortable when they were first constructed. Villas remained inhabited, at least for a while, and were run by wealthier or more powerful individuals and their servants, be they slave or free. Tenant farmers also worked the land to survive. Life in Post-Roman Britain couldnt have been easy and carefree, but the Romano-British way of life survived, and the Britons flourished with it. Continued on page two: British Leadership.

Convenience Food Fast Food And Junk Food Essay - 2071 Words

Convenience Food Research Essay Rough Draft Convenience food includes fast food and junk food. This food is very convenient for people s lives, but it is not really convenient for people s health. Why people should avoid these convenience foods? According to the article Convenience Foods the author names Rodriguez, Judith mentioned that [c]onvenience food is generic and can apply to just about any food, but it is generally used in reference to canned items, instant foods or mixes, frozen foods or meals, and fast foods. Actually, convenience food, or processed food, is commercially prepared food as an easy way to get and consume. Most convenience food provides little nutritional value, and it has excessive amounts of sodium, sugar, and saturated fats. Thus, people should avoid these types of foods, and it is highly recommended for individuals with health conditions, such as heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Convenience food affects children lives the most. It places them at high risk of the development chronic diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes later in their life. Even though, children have less weight related health and medical problems than adults, they are also more prone to develop stress, sadness, and low self-esteem. Moreover, overweight children are at high risk of becoming overweight adolescents and adults. Besides, convenience food is one of reason that make people become lazy. Therefore, people should not use these types of foods, becauseShow MoreRelatedAmerica s Current Economic State People Look For One Thing1311 Words   |  6 PagesIn America’s current economic state people look for one thing: convenience. The American lifestyle has evolved into a fast paced, overwhelming lifestyle with Americans looking to fulfill their needs through affordable and easily accessible means. There has been an increased popularity in fast food and convenience store establishments that provide quick and energizing products. It is the cheap and convenient way to purchase these foods that is slowly hindering the health of our country. The reasonRead MoreNegative Effects of Today’s Food on Elementary-Aged Children Essay1463 Words   |  6 Pages In today’s culture, food is often judged by its convenience and taste. Processed and fast foods are quick and easy, and taste fairly good. Children especially enjoy fast food and packaged snacks. But while this may seem a good solution to the fast-paced society we live in, it is actually a dangerous habit. 15% of children ages 6-19 are overweight, and the number is growing (Back to School). Even if a child is not obese, he often does not eat healthy and faces the danger of becoming overweightRead MoreNegative Effects of Today’s Food on Elementary-Aged Children Essay1500 Words   |  6 PagesIn today’s culture, people judge food by its convenience and taste. Processed and fast foods are quick, easy, and taste fairly good. Children, especially, enjoy fast food and packaged snacks. While this may seem a good solution to this fast-paced society, it is actually a dangerous habit. Fifteen percent of children ages six to nineteen are overweight, and the number is growing (Back to School). Even if a child is not obese, he often does not eat healthy and faces the danger of becoming overweightRead MoreEssay on The Long Term Effects of Fast Food556 Words   |  3 Pagesreasons why more than 11 million Canadians are overweight, but undoubtedly a key factor is fast food. Canadians should stop eating fast food, because if they do their health will improve, their will save money, and reduce their carbon footprint. It is quite will known that that fast food is junk food, and daily consumption of junk food will have detrimental affects on one’s health. Junk foods are essentially foods with little or no nutritional value. 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Subnet Level Network Topology Mapping †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Subnet Level Network Topology Mapping. Answer: Introduction: In network communication, the protocol is defined as the rules by which two devices communicate over the given communication channel. All rules governing like syntax, communication initiation /Termination and packet size are all govern by the protocol itself. In case of any error the protocol must take care of the error and avoid the termination of the conversation. A network analyzer analyzes the packets captured on the communication channel during the communication between the network devices. Network analyze could be a software or hardware or even combination of both. These types of devices help in analyzing the traffic over the network and helps in troubleshooting any situation that relates to the network communication. The network analyzer is not a tool that can replace the firewall or anti-virus but these tools can enhance the functionality of these tools providing the better security and avoiding the risk of any attacks. A network hub is the device that is designed to connect the various devices to each other without understanding the data being communicated. When a hub receives the packet, it is transferred to all the connected devices to the hub. Switches on the other side are much more intelligent than hubs, the switches process and examine all the data communicated on the network and transferred it to the matching destination whose address matches the residing nodes. If the matching one is not found the packet is simply dropped from the network. The current system is slow due to the fact it has connected the devices using the Hub, as the hub being the dumb device and its transmits all the data to all the nodes, it leads to the situation of collisions and congestions. This leads to delay in the overall network hence leading to the number of retransmission of data packets that would lead to slower network as same work is done using more packets and more time is consumed in communications. If we use the network analyzer we would then receive in the output log lot of ICMP and LLC packets, this shows the ping request and data packets being transmitted all over the place and network receiving all the data which is meant for the single machine. (Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, Perrig, n.d.) The solution to the situation is to use the network switch for the communication that would greatly bring down the number of ICMP and LLC packets on the network. This would also mean lesser congestion on the network and lower the traffic and systems would start with better speeds and would take less time booting up. In computer networks the path from one destination to other require the machines to follow certain algorithms for making the decisions. There are two major routing protocols for this: These are two major classes of routing protocol in which Distance vector uses Bellman ford, Ford-Fulkerson Algorithms to calculate the optimal paths. This routing protocol is quite simple protocol, it allows the routers to automate the process of packet delivery using the shortest path in order to reach the destination. The shortest path metric is cost that is associated with link. (Munaretto, Badis, Al Agha, Pujolle, n.d.) The protocol tracks the status of the connection with all the nodes and keep the track of speeds offered by the link. The status also includes if the link is up or not and how much time is needed for the packet to reach the required destination. Routers are needed to keep checking the paths and links in order to have updated routing information. This is why the link state is more complex hardware and have more overhead as compared to the Distance Vector. (Tao, Gao, Wang, Zhang, Ma, 2016) As in the figure 1 using the Distance Vector Routing the path that would be taken is A-B, whereas the Link state would take A-C-D-B that is 10 times faster than the Distance vector. If all the channels have same speed the Distance vector is preferred and if Link state is preferred in situation where speeds of links are different. (Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, Perrig, n.d.) Subnetting is the process in which the network is divided into smaller networks in order to manage the congestion and collisions in the network. The division is done over the layer 3 of the OSI model of IP address. Current subnet is to have at least 6 networks with 1024 nodes each using the IP address 10.0.0.0. Current requirements are as follows: (Manaf, Bataona, 2014) (Tozal, Sarac, 2011) Building A - 200 workstations Building B - 125 workstations Building C - 135 workstations Building D - 122 workstations Building E - 312 workstations Building F - 105 workstations With the given input the network would be subnetted using the subnet mask of 255.224.0.0 or /11 that would provide 2097152 number of IP address each subnet. The List of networks is: The technology in network is more concerned in order to get the throughput and pumping of the data to the nodes regardless of how the data is being communicated in the network. In such situations, many packets might be even stored in buffered or dropped if the situation arise of overflow situation. The applications such as RTMP the situation is not at all idea hence the in order to have the optimal data transfer with constant bandwidth the protocol needs to have the feature known as Quality of Service known as QoS. Bandwidth Reservation:The Bandwidth is reserved for the certain period of time and it is generally being followed in multimedia based applications, also known as resource reservation. (Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao, 2008) Latency Management:Limit the delay between the two nodes. Traffic Prioritization:priority to the packet of certain type or protocol. Traffic Shaping:buffer and limits the packets to a predefined limit of the network Network Congestion Avoidance: monitor packets and routing information so that to use the lesser congestion. TOS (type of service) a field used in the IPv4 based header for many purposes on the network such as priority queue management, lower the delay using the routes having the high throughput and much reliable services. (Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao, 2008) References Manaf, A., Bataona, D. (2014). Analysis and design of subnetting methods: Hybrid fixed length subnet masking (HFLSM).2014 International Conference On Electrical Engineering And Computer Science (ICEECS). https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iceecs.2014.7045228 Munaretto, A., Badis, H., Al Agha, K., Pujolle, G. A link-state QoS routing protocol for ad hoc networks.4Th International Workshop On Mobile And Wireless Communications Network. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mwcn.2002.1045726 Tao, J., Gao, X., Wang, B., Zhang, X., Ma, S. (2016). Multi-path based link-state routing mechanism.2016 18Th International Conference On Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT). https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icact.2016.7423385 Tozal, M., Sarac, K. (2011). Subnet level network topology mapping.30Th IEEE International Performance Computing And Communications Conference. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/pccc.2011.6108072 Yih-Chun Hu, Johnson, D., Perrig, A. SEAD: secure efficient distance vector routing for mobile wireless ad hoc networks.Proceedings Fourth IEEE Workshop On Mobile Computing Systems And Applications. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mcsa.2002.1017480 Yuanmin Chen, Xiaodong Li, Wei Mao. (2008). SIP peering based on distance vector algorithm.2008 11Th IEEE International Conference On Communication Technology. https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icct.2008.4716130

LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT Essay Example

LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT Paper Making a judgment on effectiveness of international environmental protection General / law reform introductory statements: The growing interdependence of nation-states has led to greater international attempts to reduce impact of human interference with the environment on a global scale. Although much Federal and State legislation exist in Australia aimed at regulating domestic use of the environment, to date, the international community has largely been ineffective in regulating use of the environment. Ongoing law reform is required in order to meet global targets and ensure intra and inter generational equity, reform which to date has largely been ineffective particularly in response to increasing climate change and global warning concerns. Legal processes and legal institutions introductory statements: The effectiveness of domestic and international law in protecting the global environment is limited. Legal processes, such as international conventions and actions of Nags placing p ressure on domestic governments, and legal institutions such as the United Nations and International Court of Justice can act to protect the environment effectively. However, due to the notion of state-sovereignty there is a lack of legal enforcement that compromises protection of the environment for current and future generations. The concepts of intra-generational and inter-generation equity stipulate that both rent and future generations have a right to a clean environment. More frequent international conferences have attempted to achieve such sustainable developments, however little progress has been achieved. Increasing domestic laws have been enacted to better protect the fragility of our global environment. Due to sustained periods of economic growth and high polluting and energy- inefficient methods, our environment has been proven to be under immediate threat. We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on LEGAL STUDIES ENVIRONMENT specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer International law attempts ensure equity amongst nation states and ensure the protection of the global environment, however its effectiveness is limited by the interdependence and reliance on goodwill of nation states. Global problems (including global warming) and role of International Law also note problems – good faith, sovereignty, lack of enforceability. The broad concept of environment encompasses all aspects of natural and built environment. Law reform as both a domestic and international level is increasingly taking place in attempt to reduce the human impact on our fragile environment. Current environmental problems include global warming, loss of species, deforestation, air and water pollution. The basis of the international environmental law is focused on the concept of intergenerational equity – a concept which refers to notions of the worlds â€Å"common future?’ recognizing the obligation of each nation to maintain and preserve the environment so that it can be protected for current and future generations. It is the role of the law to regulate management of environmental resources by protecting and preventing excess or unnecessary exploitation by instating restrictive legislation, whilst balancing the consumptive needs of society. Despite increasing international awareness, the law remain largely ineffective tit little agreement between nations and heightened inequity between developing and developed nations. Developing countries such as China and India have had a minimal impact in causing global warming, compared to major consumers such as the LISA. However, as they are now experiencing rapid growth economically, they are being pressured to minimize grow th in the bid to alter the effects of climate change. As international law must be ratified into domestic principles and is largely reliant on the goodwill of sovereign states, protecting and regulating the environment is largely ineffective. Despite increasing pressure on the international community to prevent further environmental degradation, the nation of state sovereignty and the individual economic and political interests of nation states will continue to represent a barrier to widespread protection. Not all nations are bound to accept and ratify intentional agreements. As a result, enforceability of international environmental laws is difficult and hard to maintain. Other environmental problems which you may consider: deforestation, salivation of agricultural lands making them barren and unsuitable for crops, loss/endangered species, Stockholm and ROI Conferences Increasing awareness and discussion about environmental issues led to a series of key international conferences. The first major international conference in relation to the global environment was the 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment. The aim was to establish a set of common guidelines for managing issues: pollution, deforestation and loss of threatened species. The Stockholm Declaration, of which 113 UN member states signed recognized state-sovereignty yet recognized the importance of joint cooperation and leadership in environmental protection. Although this legal process / law reform signified a major development of awareness, it had little effect as agreements reached were ‘soft law, which had no binding power on nation-states unless formally ratified, a process outside the control of the United Nations (ON). The most sign efficient achievement was the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programmer (UNEVEN). This establishment escalated attention paid to environment matters and encouraged domestic governments to enact specific environmental laws and legal processes to deal with environmental degradation. Significantly Uneven MIS recognized the inequity between nation states, and determined that developing countries should assist in ‘closing the gap’ between them and developing countries without compromising their standard of living. The first collective recognition of global environmental protection and signaled the importance of joint UN led legal invention. The ROI Conference (Earth Summit) was held in 1992, and covered growing issues absent in Stockholm. It attempted to create an Earth Charter, however this was unsuccessful due to a lack of consensus and funding between nation states. As a result of concussions in ROI, in which 125 nation were present, many nation States took further steps to enact domestic law aimed at protecting the environment. For example, the ‘precautionary principle’ discussed and agreed upon during the international meeting was ratified into Australian domestic law in the form of the provisions contained in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Act). To enforce environment protection laws, the legal institution – the Department of Environment and Conservation, previously known as the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) holds rower to investigate and prosecute offenders found in breach of domestic laws. The establishment of UNFROCK led to the increasingly greater awareness that nation states around the world must begin thinking about the impacts of climate change and implement policies and laws to reduce greenhouse gases and pollution of our environment. It discussed the issues of â€℠¢emissions trading’ and ‘carbon trading’. This was further discussed at the Kyoto Convention leading to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. Overall evaluation of the conferences: These conferences have largely proved significant in increasing awareness ND developing knowledge about environmental issues, however still present only the beginning Of legislative action. Kyoto and Copenhagen The long awaited drafting of the Kyoto Protocol in 2005 following the Kyoto Conference on Climate Change in 1997 has seen many nations act to lower emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in order to reduce the effects of global warming. The Protocol, which came into effect in February 2005 following signatures by many nations including UK, Canada and Russia developed the concept of carbon reduction targets. However the ineffectiveness of international law can be shown in the delays in many countries signing. This protocol did not receive acceptance everywhere as some of the heaviest polluters such as the US, China and India, and until Rude government election in late 2007, Australia has refused to sign. Much of the proposed law reform surrounding climate change requires participation in a complex system of emissions trading. However, proposed emission schemes remain complex and pose difficulties in terms of compliance, economic costs of supporting businesses in transition periods and ongoing lays in some nation states being willing to participate. It has been said for Australia to sufficiently protect the global environment they must pass a national emissions trading scheme, increase the renewable energy targets, re-assess transport systems and build sustainable cities. However, enforceability is difficult due to the reality of economic costs and job losses. Although under UNFED aims, climate change is regarded as a global problem, issues exist for developing countries like China and India who will suffer economic disadvantage and find it difficult to meet targets whilst maintaining a animal level of economic growth. As this protocol runs out in 2012, The Copenhagen Conference on Climate Change 2009 will aim to create a new climate protocol to replace it, however lack of agreement between countries remains an barrier to cohesive international law reform. State sovereignty exists to limit the role and power of the UN to demand comprehensive agreement. ICC and Tribunals Upon the establishment of the environmental chamber of the International Court of Justice in 1 993, legal processes were developed that allow for conflict resolution between nation-states. The ICC aims to settle disputes teens nations and uphold the notion of inter-dependence – the belief that all countries have a duty to protect Other States. For example, in the case Of united States v. Canada (1941), action was taken in response to issues of turnarounds pollution where the US claimed that toxic sulfur dioxide was traveling from Canada causing damage, pollution, health risks. The legal institution established to hear the matter found in favor of the US where is was stated that ‘a state has a duty to protect other states against injurious acts by individuals within its own jurisdiction’. However, despite having jurisdiction to resolve disputes between nation states, the ICC remains largely ineffective. Cases heard remain complex and difficult to resolve, particularly when consent of both parties is required prior and during proceedings. Only nation states can be party to proceedings meaning that individuals and/or transnational companies escape international prosecution. Participation in proceedings remains voluntary and if agreed to may damage already touchy relationships between nation states as was the results of legal action between Australia and France in relation to Pacific nuclear testing in early sass. Orders made rely upon the goodwill of nations in terms of enforcement and regulation. An example of the ineffectiveness of this legal institution in resolving global disputes can be seen in recent claims made by the Australian government against Japan in an attempt to stop illegal whaling and loss of marine species. With no recognition and/or cooperation from Japan, the Australian government is yet to access the services of the ICC and to date no action has been taken. It is suggested that law reform be introduced to ensure that ICC decisions are inning and parties be compelled to attend a hearing to ensure global collective rights too clean environment. Much criticism against the ICC has come from Greenback and other Nags who feel disadvantaged in relation to issues of the environment and request rights to refer matters to ICC for legal sanctions. There are various other international tribunals that may here environmental cases, such the International Law Commission, and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. These aim to develop, draft, and codify unwritten international law No’s and Media Non-governmental organizations and the media play an integral role in the generating awareness and applying pressure on governments to reform the law in response to issues such as climate change. No’s include voluntary groups of individuals with common interests, or regional organizations covering masses of land, made up of nations com ing together in agreement or discussion. Nags have a difficult task in particularly in legal development as international law does not recognize the sights of Nags to participate in treaties and they have no jurisdiction to appear formally before international tribunals. They do however play an importance role by applying political pressure on authoritative bodies to take action, informing the global public about infringements of rights and environmental concerns and providing opportunity for involvement. Greenback and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WFM) are the most significant environmental No’s. Greenback concentrates on lobbying governments for action, generating global awareness, and active protest against environmental injustices such as whaling, disposal of toxic waste, and nuclear testing. Nags can prompt significant law reform as has been the exult of protest action by Greenback which led to international treaties limiting whaling, fishing and loss of marine life. MONGO action has also seen the naming and protection of World Heritage Sites (e. G. Great Barrier Reef). The action of No’s proved the turning point in the establishment of the 1 989 the Wellington Convention for the Prohibition on fishing with long Drift Nets in the South Pacific was adopted, creating a large driftnet-free zone in the Pacific Ocean. The media also plays a key role in management of the environment. Environmental groups use media to raise awareness about environmental once and the media reports on matters that otherwise would go biblically unnoticed without coverage. For example, when new littering laws were introduced in New South Wales, the media endorsed the campaign: â€Å"Litter: its in your hands†. The SMS article ‘Toxic Metals Threat’ June 2009 is just one instance of environmental concern addressed in the media which deprecates use of delta electricity due to high rates of dangerous chemical pollution. Due to the continued industrialization and development of the human world, there has been major repercussions for the environment. CA emissions rose n 1990-2000 by 25% and the hole in the ozone layer is becoming a â€Å"catastrophic disaster’ (SMS 6/9/07). Some have said that the issues of climate change and carbon emissions are being ignored because â€Å"we are all too bored to do anything about it† (SMS March 2009). The role of the media in raising awareness is a major one. Advertisement campaigns and articles highlight facts and realities that society is all too willing to ignore. Initiatives such as Earth Hour and Clean-up Australia Day are national and global campaigns that show the effectiveness of non-legal mechanisms in raising wariness about the global environment. Australia Although there is no direct reference to the environment under the Constitution, the Federal Parliament has the ability under the ‘external affairs’ power to legislative protecting the environment. The election of a new Labor government under Rude has seen renewed attention and funding given to environmental problems, particularly climate change. There are 150 separate Federal and State laws dealing with the identification and prevention of problems. The Australian Federal Parliament has regularly responded to ratify and selective much international agreements into our domestic law. The Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conversation Act 1 999 (Act) acts as the central piece of environmental legislation providing a framework to protect and manage flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places which are regarded as matters of national significance. It also incorporates international principles including the precautionary principle and intergenerational equity into our domestic legal systems. Much domestic environmental legislation operates at a State level. The Clean Air Act 1961 and Clean Water Act 1 970 which have addressed lose matters of resource protection. The Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NEWS) is a more recent and specific document that governs the strategic planning and development processes undertaken by government in NEWS which is therefore more effective. The issue of climate change has been addressed in Australia, particularly by the Department Of Environment and Climate Change (DECK) which aims to respond to issues and reform sustainable management of land and water resources and implement further targets to the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme. However delays in achieving political agreement on the terms and practical operation of a national carbon emissions scheme is shown through ongoing delays in securing bipartisan support (this is support of both Labor and Liberal governments) for the new Bill. Discussion has now been postponed until early 201 0 until after Copenhagen Conference where it is expected that Australia will participate, however no definite promises have been made to date. SMS article – ‘Carbon bill burns as Rude fiddles’ May 2009. Section 123 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1 979 NEWS enables ‘anyone with an interest to gain ‘locus stands’ over environmental matters. This was highlighted by the case Schlock v. Iron Gate Ltd and Richmond River Shire Council (1997) where No’s commenced successful legal proceedings against a man whom acted on breach of illegal clear-felling of trees and illegal destruction of bushman habitat. This case furthermore illustrates an effective response by the legal system to provide accessibility to individuals to enable them to participate in having environmental laws enforced thus protecting the environment for current and future generations. As well as the UN-cooperation of specific internal laws, Australia has domestic legislation under the Land and Environment Court, an institution established under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1 979 (NEWS). It states that â€Å"any person can bring proceedings†. This highlights the fact that legal processes are established and readily available in Australia, however economic costs are high. The Court has set strong precedents to deter environmental damage. The case of EPA v Gardner (1997) saw the first environmental offender punished with a custodial sentence after Gardner as found guilty of pumping sewage into a natural lake to avoid fees. The cases of EPA v Alex (2005) and EPA v Weight (2001 ) reveal further action by the Court to prosecute offenders by issuing heavy fines – page 66 Resource Book for more details.

Environmental Impact Statement

Introduction In the recent past, the environmental studies have ranked industries as the leading causes of environmental pollution (Syrakov, Batchvarova, Wiman 1998, p. 118). The current challenges of global warming facing major industries across the globe have necessitated the need for coming up with tools that measure environmental risk.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Environmental Impact Statement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A number of studies affirm that industries pose potentially fatal risks to the environment in the events that they emit gasses that are hazardous to the environment (Harrop Nixon 1999, p.78). Additionally, the radiation exposure emanating from these industries have a high probability of increasing the rate of cancer to population living within the surrounding areas. This paper will review a professionally prepared environmental report and critically assess its authenticity, as an environmental impact statement. Site location San Pedro Bay, California, is a place characterised by diverse industries, with ports and incinerator facility dominating the place (The Port of Los Angeles n.d). An incinerator facility has been operational for a couple of years, and plans for setting up another one in the same locality are underway, according to its environmental report. However, this facility emits gases from its day-to-day operations, which include burnings of waste products, use of diesel equipment, ship engines, and harbor crafts, among others. Given the fact that this area has a high population, setting up another facility aimed at burning waste products may not yield substantial results due to the community’s knowledge on the impact of gas emissions on their health, as well as the knowledge of global warming. The community has a right to question the move, given that the federal, state, as well as international regulations governing environment, must be a dhered to. Thus, the move must be approved by the city council before it is put in place. It is my responsibility, as a government environmental regulator, to assess the environmental risk assessment and management tools put in place in this facility in order to provide an environmental impact statement that will be used to establish the authenticity of the facility’s risk assessment and management strategy.Advertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Activity under investigation The effects of gases emitted by diesel engines, spent oil, and smoke from the burning process of waste material forms center stage of investigation of environmental impact assessment of this incinerator facility. This is paramount because it will assess whether there is controlled burning or recycling process, which is normally done thorough destruction of the organic constituents, since lack of prope r burning of waste can lead to environmental hazards resulting from increased concentration of particulate matter in the environment (Rao 2007, p. 374). Assessing the report will necessitate the use of the Effect Screening Level (ESL) for environmental assessment, which will be based on data related to adverse effects of toxic gases on vegetation, water, and oxygen. If an airborne level of a certain chemical emitted from the burning process does not exceed its level of screening, then I will consider the probability of a hazardous environment as minimal. Nevertheless, if the levels of the air contaminated by the facility exceed the screening level, this will not mean that environmental condition is harmful; instead, this will call for an environmental assessment of the report (Mendicino 2001, p. 80). The assessment report will subsequently be used to determine whether the facility will be given an opportunity of setting up another facility within the same locality. Thus, ESL will re present a conservative tool essential in evaluating the probability of adverse environmental condition in the California State. In this regard, the assessment aimed at determining the extent of exposure of gases to the environment will be carried out regularly. These will include risk identification, risk evaluation, selecting risk reduction measures, and developing risk reduction methods. The risk identification step is important as it identifies the risks that pose threat to the firm’s safety. In this case, risk identification entails identifying potential exposure pathways of the diesel’s particulate matter, estimating exposure concentration of the diesel’s particulate matter, and estimating chemical intakes by the individuals on a long-term basis (Calow 2009, p. 503).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Environmental Impact Statement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Calow (2009, p.507) cont ends that risk evaluation step is normally divided into three categories: predictability, probability, and severity. Probability could be termed as a high possibility of an event. Toxic gas exposure within the environment is an example of highly probable event. One can only predict the outcome when he is able to foresee the possibility of an unforeseen risk at before the actual incident occurs, taking into account the outcome of the menace. The other step involves selecting risk reduction measures, which entails risk avoidance, and it can be achieved by eliminating risk-causing factors (Calow 2009, p. 509). In risk acceptance, the risk cannot be effectively eliminated, or it would not be cost-effective to do so. For case in point, a little leaking could be allowed if its outcome would not cause severe effects on the environment that calls for highly costly measures. Calow (2009, p. 512) points out the last step as developing risk reduction methods strategy by taking into considerati on of the time required, the cost of developing the strategy, as well as the material necessary to implement viable the risk elimination plans. The last three steps involve the implementation, evaluation, and reassessment of risk mitigation measures. All the above steps are crucial while putting the environmental impact statement in place. This stems from the fact that they are in a position of helping the government environmental regulator understand the problem at hand and determine relevant and effective solutions. As United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.) points out, a governing authority cannot authenticate a firm’s risk management process unless the firm comes up with a viable risk management strategy that is well understood. Thus, the flow diagram below facilitates a deep understanding of how the incinerator facility uses the environmental impact assessmentAdvertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Regulation/ legislation In order to create a positive opinion about a proper risk assessment of the expansion of the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach located in the San Pedro Bay, the assessment must be assessed in line with the zonal legislation through the agencies. These agencies have regulations that aim at reducing the risk associated with expansion of the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach located in the San Pedro Bay, California. The California Environmental protection Agency (Cal/EPA) serves as one of the agencies that represent the efforts of the basic components of the state from exposure of particulate matter to environmental protection. Specifically, this body is mandated to guarantee a clear judgment about the uncertainties of the environmental exposure using stipulated guidelines. It ensures that the environmental impact assessment is based on scientific and mathematical model (The Port of Los Angeles n.d). As such, the body determines the legality of an environme ntal report of a given firm by assessing statistical data, which quantifies the risks involved through probability ranges and risk exposure. Background As a government environmental regulator, I took the approach of recording environmental condition of the area on a unique dimension, since diesel engine, ship engines, and harbor crafts are not the only source of particulate matter and air pollutants around the port and around the area of California. Thus, I estimated the exposure concentration by measuring and ranking them according to the level of adverse effects on the environment on both short and long-term basis. This was successfully achieved by breaking down every emission in the facility, which includes the emissions from the diesel engine/ ship engines, spent fuel, and smoke, and I subsequently identified the potential exposure pathways of the each one of them. Moreover, it was paramount to consult on activities within the community that have a direct impact on the environme nt in an effort to distinguish between the environmental pollution emanating from the facility and the environmental pollution emanating from activities carried out by the members of the community, including smoking tobacco, diesel engines, and spent fuel. In my investigation I found out that despite the awareness of the negative side effects of smoking in relation to the environment, a considerable number of members of the community engage in smoking behavior, thereby increasing the level of environmental pollution. More so, vehicles that consume large amount of diesel escalate the environmental pollution within the community, as the table below demonstrates: Category Smoke (Risk Exposure) Diesel Engine ( Risk Exposure) Spent Fuel (Risk Exposure) Facility 3.5 1.9 4.5 Community 1.8 0.3 0.4 Assessment protocol This stage hold the ultimate responsibility of ensuring that the risk management and assessment are carried out in a viable manner that takes into account a number of functions. This includes identifying the critical applications prone to environmental risk, quantifying the potential impact of environmental risk, detailing the escalation process of environmental risk and implementing them in time to avert environmental disaster(Harrop Nixon 1999, p. 78). The table below is a clear indication of general aspects of risks that need to be accurately identified at the onset of operations to guide in assessing whether the firm has taken the required risk mitigation strategy. The table gives categorisations that are explained in detail in the section that follows: Possible Risk Probability Impact Risk exposure Impact time frame Mitigation strategy These include toxicity of spent fuel, malfunction in the facility, particulate matter from diesel engines ship engines, crafts Probability ranges are: 0.01-0.1 0.11-0.40 0.41-0.60 0.61-0.90 0.91-0.99 1.0 The impact categories are: 5-Critical4-serious3Moderate2-Minor1-Negligible It is the product of p robability and impact. 1 –Low risk1.0-3.0-Moderate risk3.01-4.99 high risks. Highlights two dates: this entails the earliest and latest dates in which the impact is expected to materialise The mitigation strategy is established and implemented with regard to the nature of the identified problem. Risks This section involves a careful analysis of the problem at hand. It clearly defines what environmental risk entails. It came to my knowledge that the incinerator facility has the potential of causing environmental risk in diverse stages. It is apparent that the smoke emanating from the diesel engine causes environmental pollution as it forms into particulate manner within the atmosphere. High levels of particulate matter within the environment may expose the environment to global warming (Liao 2008. p. 103) More so, the environmental risk may emanate from malfunctioning of the incinerator facility, and this can create a disastrous situation characterised by widespread effects . Checks for malfunction, therefore, necessitate coming up with high levels of expertise from a wide range of knowledge, who would ensure an adequate eradication of the predicament of toxic gasses (Sullivan Wyndham 2001, p. 15). The spent fuel in the incinerator facility can cause environmental pollution if measures are not put in place to control the exposure pathways. Additionally, spent fuel has a link to the environment degradation since fuel assemblies are stored underwater, and they continue to produce emissions, which may have negative impact on the environment (Harrop Nixon 1999, p. 79). Probability This refers to a circumstance that could not happen by chance; the ranges in the matrix are interpreted as follows: Probability Interpretation 0.01-1.0 very unlikely to occur 0.11-0.40 unlikely to occur 0.41-0.60 may occur about half of the time 0.61-0.90 likely to occur 0.91-0.99 very likely to occur 1.00 Will certainly occur The probability rating is determi ned by considering a wide range of factors using scientific methods. Risk Impact Risk impact can best be defined using the table below: Impact definition 5-critcal Has a possibility of causing widespread environmental pollution and into long-term menace. 4- serious Has a possibility of causing less fatal pollution, but in some cases, it can result into long-term menace. 3-moderate Has no any possibility of causing environmental pollution, and the main mitigation measure revolves around cost and, if implemented, It should be based on short- term basis. 2-minor Has no possibility of causing fatal pollution, but if any discrepancy occurs, it only has adverse effects to the facility, not the environment. 1-negligible Has no possibility of resulting to adverse environmental pollution if it occurs Risk exposure In this matrix, the risk exposure is calculated by getting the product of probability and occurrence impact. The definitions of the categories are as follows: Low risk: In this case, the environmental exposure to risk is at minimal, and therefore not alarming to environmental pollution. Moderate risk: In this case, the environmentalist should adopt a strategy of ensuring that the risk does not escalate to higher levels. High risk: this is an indication that there is adverse environmental pollution within the vicinity, which requires immediate attention. This level necessitates high environmental pollution control strategies (Harrop Nixon 1999, p. 80). Impact Time Frame Two dates should be put on notice while assessing the impact time frame: one is the date that the risk effects could be experienced, while the second one is the latest date that the risk effects could be experienced (Harrop Nixon 1999, p. 80). The two dates are of paramount importance in determining when the mitigation efforts should be put in place and the time in which they should be withdrawn, that is, when the expected risk is passed by events. Findings Compliance issues The Resource Conservative and recovery Act (RCRA), section 3005 of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, require the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish permitting requirements applicable to hazardous waste, treatment, storage as well as disposal facilities. The respondents have a responsibility of submitting the information that has a sole purpose of either first permit application or for a revised permit application. The owners of the incinerator facility are subject to permits for new facilities that are not yet constructed as well as permits for facilities that have newly regulated units and interim status facilities. EPA uses the information contained in the permit to identify the persons who are legally responsible for hazardous waste activities within the community, and they use this to determine the facilities that require permits under more than one program. EPA also assesses whether there is any possibility of polluting the nearby ground and su rface waters, since some chemical are drained under the sea. More so, it determines the specific waste that a firm is legally allowed to handle, and it ensures that risk management program is implemented by the facility (United States Environmental Protection Agency n.d.). With this in mind, I found out that the incinerator facility environmental report complies with the legislature because, despite the fact that it already has a running facility that has a license, it endeavors to assess the environmental impact of establishing another facility within the same locality. More so, compliance with environmental issue is evidenced by the fact that it engages all the stakeholders and its risk management strategy is congruent with the expectations of the community. Assumptions Made The environmental assessment of incinerator facility is aimed at identifying potential exposure pathways of the diesel particulate matter, spent fuel, and smoke from the facility. However, this cannot be achie ved without making an assumption. One of the assumptions is derived from the fact that diesel engines are not the only source of particulate matter and air pollutant around the port and around the area of California. Therefore, it becomes a challenge while measuring the exposure that distinguishes the potential environmental risk caused by facility from other air pollutants emanating from the community members within the environs of California. This has created an avenue for making some assumption with regard to particulate matter emanating from diesel engine, spent fuel and smoke. This stems from the fact that, even though the environmentalists are able to identify the exposure pathways, some of the particulate matters from the facility have a tendency of mixing with other gases within the environment and thus leaving the environmentalists with no option. Effectiveness of the Environmental Impact Assessment Even though the environmental impact assessment is able to give substantial results, the process is compounded with complexities, since it is vulnerable to some errors. For case in point, in the process of measuring the level of toxic gases emanating from the incinerator facility, the particulate matter might occasionally mix with types other gases, yielding to harmless gases within the environment. More so, the meter might be subjected to measuring gases emanating from motor vehicles instead of toxic gases emanating from the incinerator facility, resulting in unsupported inference (Schwartz 2001, p. 4). Nevertheless, errors emanating from such incidences can be contained by using a systematic approach that involves taking environmental measures at different time intervals for a longer period. Such an approach will ensure that the errors are minimised and that the measurements taken give room for a small margin of allowance for statistical error (Uyeda 2009, p. 41). Consistency with industry Best Practice The environmental impact statement of incinerator f acility is consistent with the industry’s best practice because, through the assessment, it addresses environmental issues by helping the workers realise how the industry interacts with the ecosystem. The industry’s mission is to eradicate waste in order to eradicate toxic gases emanating from the waste; therefore, carrying an assessment helps to ensure that it upholds its mission in a credible manner that does not end of escalating environmental pollution. More so, involving the stakeholders and the community in the assessment is a clear indication that the assessment is within the industry’s best practice, as this shows that it is closely associated with the activities of the community. Conclusion The environmental risk assessment presented in this report provides an analysis of how environmental risk is managed at San Pedro Bay, California, and gives recommendation on how risk assessment and management can be handled effectively. This report provides an asses sment of the incinerator facility, with a view of evaluating its authenticity with regard to environmental risk assessment and management. The fact that this report has assessed and established the authenticity of the report makes it stand a chance of setting up another facility within the area. The viability of the report is evidenced by the fact that it provides risks assessment and management strategy through problem identification, as well as the factors that are correlated with it. The tools then proceed to identify workable solutions associated with factors like the probability, impact, exposure level and timeline of the risk. Despite the challenges in the measurements, this environmental impact statement ensures that the environmental risks are effectively managed within the incinerator facility. List of references Calow, P 2009, Handbook of environmental risk assessment and management, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ. Harrop, D Nixon, J 1999, Environmental assessment in pr actice, Routledge, London. Liao, K-J 2008, Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses of impacts of climate change on regional air quality, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. Mendicino, L 2001, Environmental issues with materials and processes for the electronics and semiconductor industries: Proceedings of the fourth international symposium, Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ. Rao, C 2007, Environmental pollution control engineering, New Age International, New York. Schwartz, S 2001, Quality assurance of exposure models for environmental risk assessment of substances. GRIN Verlag publishers, Mà ¼nchen. Sullivan, R Wyndham, H 2001, Effective environmental management: Principles and case studies, Allen Unwin, St. Leonards, N.S.W. Syrakov, D, Batchvarova, E, Wiman, B 1998, Long-range air pollution: From models to policies: proceedings from the Swedish-Bulgarian Workshop, 19-23 October 1997, Sozopol, Bulgaria, Pensoft, Sofia. The Port of Los Angeles n.d., Draft EIR  œ Southern California International Gateway (SCIG) Project. Web. United States Environmental Protection Agency n.d., Air Polution. Web. Uyeda, C 2009, Australian master environment guide, CCH Australia, North Ryde, N.S.W. This report on Environmental Impact Statement was written and submitted by user Amber F. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Human Resources systems are created by vendors like Oracle and Ascentis, they usually include four modules: Payroll module, Time and Labor Management module, Benefits Administration module, and finally the HR management module. The Payroll module manages and controls all employees salaries and payrolls, while the Time and Labor management modules control attendance, absences issues. Benefit Administration model deals with employees benefits and entitlements. While the HR management module helps in the selection and recruitment process, more on this module will be explained later. Moreover, E-HR systems also include enterprise resource planning system (ERP), HR service centres, interactive voice response, manager and employee portals and web applications. (Panayotopoulou,Vakola and Galanaki 2007). Enterprise resource planning system is used to manage financial, materials and human resources both internally and externally. Overall, HR systems cater for the different needs of the HR department and helps automate many aspects of human resourcing. Recruitment and Selection Every business, enterprise and organization goes through the recruitment and selection process. It is the most important aspect of the human resource management department, as it provides the organization with the essential resources needed for its operations the human capital (Barber, 1998). Recruitment is defined as the activities an organization undertakes in order to identify and attract potential employees (Breaugh and Starke, 2000). Selection is what comes after recruitment of choosing the best candidate for the job out of all the applicants. The recruitment and selection process Getting the recruitment and selection process wrong is not an option for recruiters, the wrong person for the job will not only affect the companys productivity but it will also result in business losses (book reference). That is why most companies follow a somewhat standardized recruitment and selection process, shown in the figure below. Recruitment Organizations mold their recruitment processes or strategies according to the job they want to occupy. In order to attract the right candidates, HR professionals advertise in a certain way, seek professionals or graduates, contact agencies or use the Internet. Recruitment tools In a study by Bernthal and Development Dimensions International, data was collected from members of the Electronic Recruiting Exchange. Among the survey questions was a question about the recruitment strategy and its effectiveness. The findings of the study show that the internet is the most popular and most effective recruitment method while employee referrals came second. This shows that although the internet is new and more effective, it did not replace the traditional recruitment methods. Figure showing Berthals results: Taken from Recruitment Selection paper by Barthal and Development Dimensions International Online Recruitment The internet was not acknowledged as a recruitment tool until the mid 1990s. With the benefits it brought to recruiters, the media described it as the driver behind a recruiting revolution (Boydell, 2002). Many companies now have a new position in the HR department; Online recruiter. Online recruitment is growing rapidly; both recruiters and job seekers around the world use it. It can be defined as the use of the internet to match job seekers with appropriate jobs. In other terms, using the internet to attract potential employees. Studies were carried out to understand and quantify how much recruitment exactly is done online. These studies include: a study by total jobs 2004 that shows that two thirds of the organizations in the UK use job boards. While HR focus (2001) indicated that more than 75% of HR professionals use job boards in addition to the traditional recruitment methods. In the USA, Cober and Brown (2006) found out that 50% of the recruitments were carried online and this figure is expected to increase. Moreover, a study by Capelli (2001) stated that 90% of the Fortune 500 use online recruiting. A poll carried out by The Recruiters Network (website) showed that 45% of the companies filled 20% or more of their positions through online recruitment (Charles 2000). The most effective and popular online recruitment methods are: Talent Management Systems The HR management module mentioned previously pursues talent management. Talent management is the process of attracting and hiring skilled employees, or retaining current employees while helping them work on their own talents. Talent Management systems perform the following tasks: analyze the use of personnel within the company, post job vacancies online, review applicants credentials, track demographic data of candidates, store information, automatically communicate and provide information to applicants and many more, depending on the company. Thus talent management systems are used in the recruitment process. Advertising on the companys site The first, cheapest step a company can take to recruit people is to advertise about the job offer on its on website. In a study by Bartam (2000) figures showed 88% of companies recruiting 50 or more graduates per year advertise on their own website. Advertising on the companys website slashes advertisement costs in newspapers, magazines, and recruitment agenciesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. the internet is global medium, thus making it very much easier to spread the word, while being much more cost effective. The company can also use Google ads as a way to advertise for job vacancies within the organization. Job Boards Job boards are recruitment websites that match recruiters with the most appropriate applicants (also called job hunters) through advertisements and job postings. There are plenty of job boards on the world wide web; the most popular include Monster, CareerBuilder and HotJobs.com. Since these websites are similar and offer the same service, monster.com will be used as an example in order to evaluate and understand job boards. Monster.com Monster.com is a global online recruitment website. Its network consists of 22 local content and language sites. The traffic on the website is estimated to be over 25 million job seeking users and over 100,000 member companies. Its rà ©sumà © database contains more than 17 million rà ©sumà ©s. Two separate studies by Gutmacher (2000) and Leonard (2000) both confirmed that the emergence of monster.com and rà ©sumà © as frequent search words indicates the influence of job boards (monster.com) on web job searching or in other words online recruitment. According to monster.coms employment index, the month of September 2010 showed a 131 employment index the highest so far. More interestingly, Wales showed the highest employment in the UK region. From the figures and information above, it is safe to conclude that job boards are doing well and play a vital role in online recruitment. However, a significant number of job seekers continue to search in general search engines (reference) while other studies highlighted the role of social media websites play in job recruitment. Social media websites The past decade has seen the rise of social media websites. It is now not enough to post your resume on a job board. Social recruitment is now beginning to over shadow the use of job boards and other traditional recruitment methods at some companies (Levinson 2010). Moreover, recruiters are spammed with hundreds of applications of unqualified personnel when posting on big job boards which forces them to look for qualified applicants elsewhere. Findings from a survey conducted by Jobvite (a recruitment software maker) showed that 73.3% of the companies use social networks for recruitment, while 9.3% are planning to begin next year. Another finding shows that LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter are among the most popular social media networks used by companies for recruitment. LinkedIn LinkedIn is a professional network, which includes contacts and relationships developed over the years.. LinkedIn provides its users with the means of establishing an authoritative resource on their experience and capabilities, thus making users more attractive to recruiters. Currently LinkedIn consists of more than 80 million members from over 200 countries. LinkedIn from recruiters perspective is a place that provides access to different kinds of reliable qualified talents. The main reason that companies are using LinkedIn is to find passive job candidates. Another reason why companies are using LinkedIn, is because referrals from their employees are highly valued because they typically have a higher success rate (hence the popular employee referral bonuses). LinkedIn helps companies leverage the networks of their employees. Kay Luo, Director of corporate communication at LinkedIn. Hundred of companies use LinkedIn and LinkedIn corporate solutions to post jobs and source candidates for recruitment. The question is: How does LinkedIn work? For example, person x creates a profile, uploads a picture and writes down his skills, capabilities and experiences. A company searching for an employee or a recruitment agency working for that company searches the databases available at LinkedIn, finds person x who has the skills required for the job. The company then looks at his information and if person x is the right person for the job, they contact him. LinkedIn is growing rapidly to the extent to which it is almost unprofessional not to have a LinkedIn profile. Considering that executives and employees from the all the fortune 500 companies have LinkedIn profiles. Facebook Facebook is ranked 2nd among social media sites used for recruitment purposes. It is a social networking site that connects people with their friends, co-workers, family members, and others. Chris Russel, founder of jobsinpods.com thinks that: Facebook is a talent goldmine. Its filled with millions of passive candidates that employers covet. Looking at Facebooks demographics, it has more than 200 million active users. Success recruitment stories, like the Ernest Young Facebook group means: if Facebook is utilized correctly, recruiters can access and select from a wide spread of talented candidates. They key to Facebook recruitment is to create relationships with potential employees in order to make yourself their employer of choice (Facebook Recruitment Tips, 2008) The figure below illustrates how facebook can be used: Selection The selection process is not easy. An executive interviewed by Forrester explained the selection process: We have to sift through lots of resumes, like kissing frogs before you find the prince (Lawrence 1999) Hundreds of applicants apply for the job, companies then have to filter out the suitable ones and filter them even more to find the right person for the job. Technology has made the selection process easier, nowadays there are numerous methods used by companies in order to test applicants. Some of these methods are: Applications Database Applications Database also known as resume database are computer softwares used to keep track of applications. Applications are sent to the database where they are stored, a query containing any keyword the company desires is run to find applicants with the required specifications. This helps in narrowing down the applicants to the most suitable ones. These programs also enable companies to send template emails and set up interviews without the need to manually do it, thus proving to be cost and time efficient. Online testing and assessment Psychometric tests are used to measure the applicants capabilities. It gives the employer an insight into whether the applicant can work well with a group and his ability to handle stress and meet intellectual demands of the job. These tests are usually divided into: Aptitude tests There are several types of aptitude tests as shown in the figure below. The type of test the applicant has to sit through depends on the job he/she is applying for. Taken from psychometric-success.com Aptitude tests measure the abilities of applicants in the area the job requires the most. Personality tests Personality tests include questions about behavior, feelings and thoughts. They are used to analyze the applicants characteristics in order to find out if the applicant has the right characteristics to help him fit into the organization, whether its motivation, discipline, enthusiasmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. Psychometrics tests are usually presented in multiple-choice formats. The applicant answers directly into the computer or an electronic device. The results are calculated straight away and compared with the results of a control group. Internet Interviews Interviews are an essential part of the selection process. It gives both the employer and the employee a chance to get to know each other and have a face to face conversation. Based on the interview the employer can decide whether the applicant is suitable or not. There are different types of interviews: screening, selection, group, stress, panel, and most recently internet or online interviews. Online interviews are conducted over the internet using video conferencing, it is like a normal interview, except the interviewee is not in the same place as the interviewer geographically. Online interviews give the employer the chance of conducting the interview without baring the cost of the applicants transportation and the time spent traveling; this is very effective in interviewing people from overseas. Reference checks When selecting a potential employee, companies check the employees background for criminal, medical, credit records and job references (subjected to the presence of the search and access permission). Reference checks are commonly done over the telephone and by email. There are also websites offering to conduct employment reference checks for employment like credit-check-services.co.uk. It claims to verify the employees identity; address; criminal record history; employment history; qualifications and more. Automated reference checks make accessing background information quick and easy. The problem with reference checks is permission and privacy issue; applicants must allow the company to do these checks. Assessment centers With the help of computers and the internet, it is possible to create multi user exercises like business simulations. The users of this exercise dont need to be in the same place to take part. The exercise can be customized in order to include the tasks the employer wants to evaluate the applicants in. The exercise is closely monitored and from it the employer can tell which user is doing a better job and who is having a tough time coping. It is to be noted, that one selection method doesnt replace the other. Different methods have to be applied in order to filter the hundred of applicants to the suitable one. Advantage Disadvantages of E- Recruitment Selection There are two sides to everything. The introduction of technology to recruitment selection might be the best thing that happened to HR, but it also has its setbacks. On one hand, the introduction of technology: Enabled companies to identify a virtually unlimited number of job seekers. Reached people at a global level while traditional methods can only grasp the local job market. (Chaskelson, 2000), (Ganalaki, 2002) Reduced Advertising costs, posting a job vacancy on a companys website or a job board costs less than posting it on newspapers. Reduced the time taken in recruitment; it reduced the time taken to post the job vacancy and resumes can be received on the same day. Technology also speeded up the recruitment process by automating some HR tasks. Provided a wider talent market for companies to choose from. iLogos research 1998 shows that the Internet provides better quality applicants as they tend to be better-educated and more computer literate than non-users. Provides 24/7 access to resumes and applicants can send their resumes at any time. Facilitated the use of databases, internet testing, assessment centers which help in the selection process. On the other hand, the advantages of technology are also its dangers. Due to the ease of looking for job posts and applying online, millions of rà ©sumà ©s are sent which makes the screening process hard and time consuming. The presence of internet testing makes it easy for anyone to create a test and post. Loss of human interaction. A study by Arkin and Crabb (1999) shows that executive job applicants still prefer personal contact to internet contact. It cant replace the traditional recruitment and selection methods. Seminerio (2001) stated many companies might still continue to use traditional recruitment services for hiring executive staff employees. The use of internet could discriminate against non internet users or those who are not good with computers. There are also some legal issues with e-recruitment and selection. For example, manipulation could occur in the use of internet tests the person applying may be different from the person taking the test. Overall, the advantages of e-recruitment outweigh its disadvantages. Conclusion To sum it all up, this essay has discussed and evaluated the use of technology in recruitment selection. Online recruitment has been identified as the most efficient recruitment method, it branches into: Talent Management Systems, Advertising on the companys website, job boards and social media network. There are some privacy and discrimination issues with online recruitment, but it does more good than harm. The use of technology in selection helped automate and make easy the different selection methods. It also introduced new ways of doing the methods like: online interviews, keeping an application database, online assessment centers and internet tests. I will end this essay by stating E-recruitment selection is here to stay and evolve the world into a much more advanced place of recruiting, which can potentially curb down global unemployment rates.

Thoughts on Whats It Mean To be Human Essay -- Human Nature Essays

Thoughts on What's It Mean To be Human Last year I had a lot of headaches. Two months passed, and I still did not go to the doctor. However, one morning I woke up, and I just could not open my eyes because the pain that I had in my head would not let me. Also I felt dizzy every time that I tried to stand up. I decided to go to the doctor and present my concerns. The doctor recommeded an MRI test. The test indicated that I have a tumor in my pituitary. Thanks to the great development of technology and good equipment such as the computer system that doctor used to test and figure out my disease, I am being treated successfully with the help of doctors and artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence may be described and evaluated by learning about the Turing test, the Loebners contest and discussing basic human nature contrasted with computers. According to www.encarta.com the definition for Artificial Intelligence is a system that makes it possible for a machine to perform functions similar to these performed by human intelligence such as learning, reasoning, self - correcting and adaptive. In other words, machines are able to do what a human does such as learning, reasoning, etc. Then does it mean that computers are intelligent. The most widely spread definition of Artificial Intelligence is called the Turing test. According to Platts article the Turing test has it origin in 1950, when Alan Turing a British mathematician proposed: If a computer successfully impersonate a human during a free- form exchange of the test messages, then for all practical purposes the computer should be considered intelligent(12). Then the Turing test is quite simple. If a computer is found to give answers to questions that cannot be distin... ...owever, computers are never going to replace human intelligence. Even though an MRI can give you a highly enhanced view of your brain, it will always be necessary for a doctor to look at the results and make a diagnosis that a computer is still unable to do. This is, because humans are spontaneous, they are able to do whatever they want to do without another person telling them what to do. Instead, Computers always have to do what somebody else tells them to do and do not think by their own. Works Cited Artificial Intelligence. 2000 www.encarta.com. ( April 10, 2001.) Laucius, Joanne. Otttawa Citizen. Newsweek magazine. December 2000. Platt, Charles. Whats It Mean ToBe Human, Anyway? Composing Cyberspace Identity, Comunnity, and Knowledge in the Electronic Age. Ed. Richard Holeton. US: MC Grow Hill, 1998. 12-20. News. 2000 www.msn.com. (April 10, 2001. )